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Father of Biophilosophy Jonas Salk Strives to Make Institute on Coast Home for Science and Arts

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American virologist; inventor of the polio vaccine (1914–1995)

Jonas Salk
Jonas Salk candid.jpg

Salk in 1959
Born

Jonas Salk


(1914-10-28)October 28, 1914

New York City, U.S.
Died June 23, 1995(1995-06-23) (aged 80)[ane]

La Jolla, California, U.South.[1]

Resting place El Camino Memorial Park
San Diego, California
Alma mater Urban center College of New York[one]
New York University[ane]
Known for First polio vaccine
Spouse(s)

Donna Lindsay

​

​

(m. 1939; div. 1968)​

[i]

Françoise Gilot

​

​

(m. 1970)​

[1]
Children 3
Awards
  • Albert Lasker Award (1956)[1]
  • Robert Koch Medal[1]
  • Mellon Institute Award[i]
  • United States Presidential Citation[one]
  • Congressional Gilded Medal (1975)[ane]
  • Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977)
Scientific career
Fields Medical research,
virology, and epidemiology
Institutions University of Pittsburgh
Salk Institute
University of Michigan
Doctoral advisor Thomas Francis Jr.
Signature
Jonas Salk signature.svg

Jonas Edward Salk (; born Jonas Salk; October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American virologist and medical researcher who adult one of the beginning successful polio vaccines. He was born in New York City and attended the Metropolis College of New York and New York University School of Medicine.[2]

In 1947, Salk accepted a professorship in the Schoolhouse of Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh. It was there that he undertook a project to determine the number of dissimilar types of poliovirus, starting in 1948. For the next seven years, Salk devoted himself towards developing a vaccine confronting polio.

Salk was immediately hailed as a "miracle worker" when the vaccine's success was beginning made public in April 1955, and chose to not patent the vaccine or seek any turn a profit from it in social club to maximize its global distribution.[2] The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis and the University of Pittsburgh looked into patenting the vaccine merely, since Salk'due south techniques were non novel, their patent chaser said "If there were any patentable novelty to be found in this stage it would prevarication within an extremely narrow telescopic and would be of doubtful value."[three] [four] An immediate rush to vaccinate began in both the United States and around the world. Many countries began polio immunization campaigns using Salk'due south vaccine, including Canada, Sweden, Kingdom of denmark, Norway, Westward Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium. By 1959, the Salk vaccine had reached nigh ninety countries.[5] An attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin, coming into commercial use in 1961. Less than 25 years after the release of Salk's vaccine, domestic transmission of polio had been eliminated in the United states of america.

In 1963, Salk founded the Salk Found for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, which is today a center for medical and scientific enquiry. He continued to carry inquiry and publish books in his later years, focusing in his final years on the search for a vaccine against HIV. Salk also campaigned vigorously for mandatory vaccination throughout the rest of his life, calling the universal vaccination of children against illness a "moral commitment".[vi] Salk's personal papers are today stored in Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego.[7] [eight]

Early on life and education [edit]

Jonas Salk was born in New York City to Daniel and Dora (née Press) Salk. His parents were Jewish; Daniel was built-in in New Jersey to immigrant parents and Dora, who was born in Minsk, emigrated when she was twelve.[ix] [ten] Salk's parents did non receive extensive formal teaching.[eleven] Jonas had two younger brothers, Herman and Lee, a renowned child psychologist.[12] The family moved from East Harlem to 853 Elsmere Place, the Bronx,[13] with some fourth dimension spent in Queens at 439 Embankment 69th Street, Arverne.[14]

When he was 13, Salk entered Townsend Harris High School, a public school for intellectually gifted students. Named afterwards the founder of Metropolis College of New York (CCNY), it was, wrote his biographer, Dr. David Oshinsky, "a launching pad for the talented sons of immigrant parents who lacked the money—and full-blooded—to attend a top private school." In loftier school "he was known as a perfectionist ... who read everything he could lay his hands on," according to 1 of his fellow students.[xv] Students had to cram a four-year curriculum into just three years. Equally a event, most dropped out or flunked out, despite the schoolhouse's motto "study, study, written report." Of the students who graduated, however, near had the grades to enroll in CCNY, noted for being a highly competitive higher.[16] : 96

Pedagogy [edit]

Salk enrolled in CCNY, from which he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1934.[17] Oshinsky writes that "for working-class immigrant families, City College represented the apex of public higher pedagogy. Getting in was tough, but tuition was free. Competition was intense, but the rules were adequately practical. No i got an advantage based on an accident of birth."[16]

At his mother'due south urging, he put aside aspirations of becoming a lawyer and instead full-bodied on classes necessary for admission to medical school. However, co-ordinate to Oshinsky, the facilities at City Higher were "barely second rate." There were no research laboratories. The library was inadequate. The faculty contained few noted scholars. "What made the identify special," he writes, "was the student body that had fought then hard to get there... driven by their parents.... From these ranks, of the 1930s and 1940s, emerged a wealth of intellectual talent, including more Nobel Prize winners—eight—and PhD recipients than whatsoever other public college except the University of California at Berkeley." Salk entered CCNY at the historic period of fifteen, a "common age for a freshman who had skipped multiple grades forth the way."[sixteen] : 98

As a child, Salk did not show whatever interest in medicine or scientific discipline in general. He said in an interview with the Academy of Achievement,[eighteen] "Equally a child I was not interested in scientific discipline. I was merely interested in things man, the human being side of nature, if you like, and I continue to be interested in that."

Medical school [edit]

After Metropolis College, Salk enrolled in New York Academy to report medicine. Co-ordinate to Oshinsky, NYU based its small reputation on famous alumni, such as Walter Reed, who helped conquer xanthous fever. Tuition was "comparatively low, meliorate all the same, information technology did not discriminate against Jews... while nearly of the surrounding medical schools—Cornell, Columbia, Academy of Pennsylvania, and Yale—had rigid quotas in place." Yale, for example, accepted 76 applicants in 1935 out of a pool of 501. Although 200 of the applicants were Jewish, but five got in.[16] : 98 During his years at New York Academy Medical School, Salk worked equally a laboratory technician during the schoolhouse year and every bit a campsite counselor in the summer.[17]

During Salk's medical studies, he stood out from his peers, according to Bookchin, "not just considering of his continued academic prowess—he was Alpha Omega Alpha, the Phi Beta Kappa Gild of medical education—but because he had decided he did not want to practice medicine." Instead, he became captivated in research, even taking a year off to written report biochemistry. He afterwards focused more than of his studies on bacteriology, which had replaced medicine every bit his master interest. He said his want was to assist humankind in general rather than unmarried patients.[xv] "It was the laboratory work, in detail, that gave new management to his life."[xvi]

Salk has said: "My intention was to become to medical school, and then go a medical scientist. I did not intend to practice medicine, although in medical school, and in my internship, I did all the things that were necessary to qualify me in that regard. I had opportunities along the way to drop the idea of medicine and go into science. At one point at the terminate of my first year of medical school, I received an opportunity to spend a year in research and teaching in biochemistry, which I did. And at the finish of that year, I was told that I could, if I wished, switch and get a Ph.D. in biochemistry, but my preference was to stay with medicine. And, I believe that this is all linked to my original ambition, or desire, which was to exist of some assist to humankind, so to speak, in a larger sense than just on a ane-to-i basis."[19]

Concerning his last twelvemonth of medical school, Salk said: "I had an opportunity to spend time in elective periods in my last year in medical schoolhouse, in a laboratory that was involved in studies on influenza. The influenza virus had simply been discovered about a few years earlier that. And, I saw the opportunity at that time to test the question as to whether we could destroy the virus infectivity and still immunize. And then, by carefully designed experiments, we constitute it was possible to practice then."[20]

Postgraduate research and early laboratory work [edit]

In 1941, during his postgraduate work in virology, Salk chose a two-month constituent to work in the Thomas Francis' laboratory at the University of Michigan. Francis had recently joined the faculty of the medical school after working for the Rockefeller Foundation, where he had discovered the type B influenza virus. According to Bookchin, "the ii-month stint in Francis's lab was Salk's outset introduction to the world of virology—and he was hooked."[15] : 25 After graduating from medical school, Salk began his residency at New York's prestigious Mount Sinai Hospital, where he once more worked in Francis's laboratory.[16] Salk so worked at the University of Michigan School of Public Health with Francis, on an army-commissioned projection in Michigan to develop an influenza vaccine. He and Francis eventually perfected a vaccine that was soon widely used at army bases, where Salk discovered and isolated i of the strains of influenza that was included in the final vaccine.[15] : 26

Polio research [edit]

In 1947, Salk became aggressive for his own lab and was granted ane at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, but the lab was smaller than he had hoped and he institute the rules imposed past the university restrictive.[21] In 1948, Harry Weaver, the managing director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, contacted Salk. He asked Salk to discover out if there were more than types of polio than the 3 then known, offering additional space, equipment and researchers. For the starting time twelvemonth he gathered supplies and researchers including Julius Youngner, Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, and secretary Lorraine Friedman joined Salk's team, too.[22] [23] Equally time went on, Salk began securing grants from the Mellon family and was able to build a working virology laboratory.[15] He subsequently joined the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis's polio project established past President Franklin D. Roosevelt.[15] [24]

All-encompassing publicity and fear of polio led to much increased funding, $67 million by 1955, only inquiry connected on unsafe live vaccines.[25] [16] : 85–87 Salk decided to utilise the safer 'killed' virus, instead of weakened forms of strains of polio viruses similar the ones used contemporaneously by Albert Sabin, who was developing an oral vaccine.[26]

After successful tests on laboratory animals, on July 2, 1952, assisted by the staff at the D.T. Watson Domicile for Crippled Children (now the Watson Institute[27]), Salk injected 43 children with his killed-virus vaccine. A few weeks later, Salk injected children at the Polk State School for the Retarded and Feeble-minded. He vaccinated his own children in 1953.[28] [29] In 1954 he tested the vaccine on about one million children, known as the polio pioneers. The vaccine was appear as safe on April 12, 1955.[25] [24] [xxx] [31] [32]

Salk in 1955 at the Academy of Pittsburgh

Mag photo of Jonas Salk to O'Neill, "the most elaborate program of its kind in history, involving twenty,000 physicians and public health officers, 64,000 school personnel, and 220,000 volunteers,"[25] with over 1.viii million school children participating in the trial.[33] A 1954 Gallup poll showed that more Americans knew about the polio field trials than could give the full name of the President.

The project became big, involving 100 million contributors to the March of Dimes, and 7 million volunteers.[25] [34] : 54 The foundation allowed itself to become into debt to finance the last inquiry required to develop the Salk vaccine.[35] Salk worked incessantly for two-and-a-half years.[25] [36]

Salk's inactivated polio vaccine came into use in 1955.[37] [38] It is on the World Health Organization's Listing of Essential Medicines.[39] [twoscore]

Becoming a public figure [edit]

Celebrity versus privacy [edit]

Salk preferred non to have his career as a scientist affected by too much personal attending, as he had always tried to remain contained and private in his enquiry and life, just this proved to be incommunicable. "Young man, a great tragedy has befallen you—y'all've lost your anonymity", the tv set personality Ed Murrow said to Salk soon after the onslaught of media attending.[41] When Murrow asked him, "Who owns this patent?", Salk replied, "Well, the people I would say. In that location is no patent. Could you lot patent the sun?"[42] The vaccine is calculated to be worth $7 billion had it been patented.[43] Withal, lawyers from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis did look into the possibility of a patent, just ultimately adamant that the vaccine was not a patentable invention because of prior fine art.[4]

Salk served on the lath of directors of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.[44]

Author Jon Cohen noted, "Jonas Salk made scientists and journalists alike go goofy. As one of the only living scientists whose face was known the world over, Salk, in the public's eye, had a superstar aura. Airplane pilots would announce that he was on board and passengers would flare-up into applause. Hotels routinely would upgrade him into their penthouse suites. A repast at a restaurant inevitably meant an interruption from an gentleman, and scientists approached him with drop-jawed wonder as though some of the stardust might rub off."[45]

For the about role, nonetheless, Salk was "appalled at the demands on the public figure he has go and resentful of what he considers to be the invasion of his privacy", wrote The New York Times, a few months after his vaccine announcement.[32] The Times commodity noted, "at 40, the once obscure scientist ... was lifted from his laboratory almost to the level of a folk hero." He received a presidential commendation, a score of awards, four honorary degrees, half a dozen foreign decorations, and messages from thousands of fellow citizens. His alma mater, City Higher of New York, gave him an honorary degree equally Doc of Laws. But "despite such very nice tributes", The New York Times wrote, "Salk is profoundly disturbed by the torrent of fame that has descended upon him. ... He talks continually about getting out of the limelight and back to his laboratory ... because of his 18-carat distaste for publicity, which he believes is inappropriate for a scientist."[32]

During a 1980 interview, 25 years later, he said, "It'southward as if I've been a public property always since, having to respond to external, too equally internal, impulses. ... It's brought me enormous gratification, opened many opportunities, but at the same time placed many burdens on me. It altered my career, my relationships with colleagues; I am a public figure, no longer one of them."[41]

Maintaining his individuality [edit]

"If Salk the scientist sounds austere", wrote The New York Times, "Salk the man is a person of great warmth and tremendous enthusiasm. People who meet him more often than not like him." A Washington newspaper correspondent commented, "He could sell me the Brooklyn Bridge, and I never bought anything before." Accolade-winning geneticist Walter Nelson-Rees called him "a renaissance scientist: brilliant, sophisticated, driven ... a fantastic brute."[46] : 127

He enjoys talking to people he likes, and "he likes a lot of people", wrote the Times. "He talks quickly, articulately, and oftentimes in consummate paragraphs." And "He has very fiddling perceptible interest in the things that interest most people—such equally making money." That belongs "in the category of mink coats and Cadillacs—unnecessary", he said.[32]

Establishing the Salk Establish [edit]

The Salk Establish at La Jolla

In the years after Salk's discovery, many supporters, in particular the National Foundation, "helped him build his dream of a research circuitous for the investigation of biological phenomena 'from cell to lodge'."[47] Called the Salk Found for Biological Studies, information technology opened in 1963 in the San Diego neighborhood of La Jolla, in a purpose-built facility designed by the builder Louis Kahn. Salk believed that the institution would assistance new and upcoming scientists forth in their careers, every bit he said himself, "I thought how nice information technology would be if a place like this existed and I was invited to work in that location."[48]

In 1966, Salk described his "ambitious plan for the creation of a kind of Socratic academy where the supposedly alienated two cultures of science and humanism will have a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization."[49] Author and journalist Howard Taubman explained:

Although he is distinctly future-oriented, Dr. Salk has not lost sight of the plant's immediate aim, which is the development and use of the new biology, called molecular and cellular biology, described as function physics, role chemistry and function biology. The broad-gauged purpose of this science is to empathise man'southward life processes.

In that location is talk here of the possibility, once the secret of how the cell is triggered to manufacture antibodies is discovered, that a single vaccine may be adult to protect a child against many common infectious diseases. At that place is speculation virtually the ability to isolate and perhaps eliminate genetic errors that pb to birth defects.

Dr. Salk, a creative human being himself, hopes that the institute will do its share in probing the wisdom of nature and thus help enlarge the wisdom of man. For the ultimate purpose of science, humanism and the arts, in his judgment, is the freeing of each individual to cultivate his total inventiveness, in whichever management information technology leads. ... As if to prepare for Socratic encounters such as these, the institute'due south architect, Louis Kahn, has installed blackboards in place of physical facings on the walls along the walks.[49]

The New York Times, in a 1980 commodity celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, described the current workings at the facility:

At the institute, a magnificent complex of laboratories and study units assault a bluff overlooking the Pacific, Dr. Salk holds the titles of founding director and resident fellow. His own laboratory group is concerned with the immunologic aspects of cancer and the mechanisms of autoimmune illness, such equally multiple sclerosis, in which the immune arrangement attacks the body's ain tissues.[41]

In an interview nearly his hereafter hopes at the institute, he said, "In the end, what may accept more significance is my creation of the institute and what volition come out of it, because of its example every bit a place for excellence, a creative environs for creative minds."

Francis Crick, codiscoverer of the construction of the DNA molecule, was a leading professor at the institute until his expiry in 2004.

The institute also served every bit the basis for Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar's 1979 volume Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts.[50]

AIDS vaccine work [edit]

Commencement in the mid-1980s, Salk engaged in enquiry to develop a vaccine for AIDS. He cofounded The Immune Response Corporation (IRC) with Kevin Kimberlin and patented Remune, an immunologic therapy, simply was unable to secure liability insurance for the product.[51] The project was discontinued in 2007, twelve years after Salk'due south expiry.[ commendation needed ]

Salk's "biophilosophy" [edit]

Jonas Salk during a 1988 Centers for Affliction Control visit

In 1966, The New York Times referred to him as the "Father of Biophilosophy." According to Times announcer and author Howard Taubman, "he never forgets ... there is a vast amount of darkness for man to penetrate. As a biologist, he believes that his science is on the frontier of tremendous new discoveries; and equally a philosopher, he is convinced that humanists and artists have joined the scientists to achieve an understanding of human in all his concrete, mental and spiritual complication. Such interchanges might lead, he would promise, to a new and important schoolhouse of thinkers he would designate as biophilosophers."[49] Salk told his cousin, Joel Kassiday, at a meeting of the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Futurity on Capitol Hill in 1984 that he was optimistic that ways to prevent most homo and fauna diseases would eventually be adult. Salk said people must be prepared to take prudent risks, since "a chance-costless society would become a expressionless-end society" without progress.

Salk describes his "biophilosophy" as the application of a "biological, evolutionary point of view to philosophical, cultural, social and psychological bug." He went into more detail in ii of his books, Human being Unfolding, and The Survival of the Wisest. In an interview in 1980, he described his thoughts on the bailiwick, including his feeling that a sharp rise and an expected leveling off in the homo population would take place and somewhen bring a change in human attitudes:

I recollect of biological noesis equally providing useful analogies for understanding homo nature. ... People recollect of biology in terms of such applied matters equally drugs, but its contribution to knowledge about living systems and ourselves will in the future exist equally of import. ... In the past epoch, man was concerned with death, high mortality; his attitudes were antideath, antidisease", he says. "In the futurity, his attitudes will exist expressed in terms of prolife and prohealth. The past was dominated by death control; in the time to come, birth command will exist more than important. These changes we're observing are part of a natural order and to exist expected from our capacity to adapt. It's much more than important to cooperate and collaborate. Nosotros are the co-authors with nature of our destiny.[41]

His definition of a "biophilosopher" is "Someone who draws upon the scriptures of nature, recognizing that nosotros are the product of the process of evolution, and understands that we have go the process itself, through the emergence and development of our consciousness, our awareness, our capacity to imagine and anticipate the futurity, and to choose from among alternatives."[52]

But prior to his decease, Salk was working on a new book along the theme of biophilosophy, privately reported to be titled Millennium of the Mind.

Personal life and death [edit]

The day after his graduation from medical school in 1939, Salk married Donna Lindsay, a master's candidate at the New York College of Social Work. David Oshinsky writes that Donna's male parent, Elmer Lindsay, "a wealthy Manhattan dentist, viewed Salk equally a social inferior, several cuts below Donna'due south one-time suitors." Eventually, her father agreed to the union on two atmospheric condition: first, Salk must expect until he could exist listed equally an official Grand.D. on the nuptials invitations, and second, he must ameliorate his "rather pedestrian status" by giving himself a center proper name."[16] : 99

They had three children: Peter (who too became a physician and is at present a part-time professor of infectious diseases at the University of Pittsburgh),[28] [29] Darrell, and Jonathan Salk. In 1968, they divorced and, in 1970, Salk married French painter Françoise Gilot.

Jonas Salk died from heart failure at the age of fourscore on June 23, 1995, in La Jolla,[53] and was cached at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego.[54]

Honors and recognition [edit]

  • 1955, 1 month after the vaccine announcement, he was honored by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, where he was given their "highest award for services" past Governor George M. Leader, Meritorious Service Medal, where the governor added,

... in recognition of his 'historical medical' discovery ... Dr. Salk's achievement is meritorious service of the highest magnitude and dimension for the republic, the country and mankind." The governor, who had iii children, said that "as a parent he was 'humbly thankful to Dr. Salk,' and as Governor, 'proud to pay him tribute'.[55]

  • 1955, Metropolis Academy of New York creates the Salk Scholarship fund which it awards to multiple outstanding pre-med students each year
  • 1956, awarded the Lasker Award
  • 1957, the Municipal Hospital building, where Salk conducted his polio research at the University of Pittsburgh, is renamed Jonas Salk Hall and is dwelling to the university's School of Chemist's and Dentistry.[56]
  • 1958, awarded the James D. Bruce Memorial Award

  • 1958, elected to the Polio Hall of Fame, which was dedicated in Warm Springs, Georgia
  • 1975, awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award and the Congressional Gold Medal
  • 1976, awarded the Academy of Accomplishment's Gold Plate Accolade[57]
  • 1976, named the Humanist of the Yr by the American Humanist Association
  • 1977, awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Jimmy Carter, with the following statement accompanying the medal:

Because of Dr. Jonas Due east. Salk, our state is free from the cruel epidemics of poliomyelitis that one time struck almost yearly. Because of his tireless piece of work, untold hundreds of thousands who might accept been crippled are sound in torso today. These are Medico Salk's truthful honors, and in that location is no style to add to them. This Medal of Freedom can only express our gratitude, and our deepest thanks.

  • 1981, decorated by the Italian government on January 3 as a Thou Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Democracy[58]
  • 1996, the March of Dimes Foundation created an almanac $250,000 cash "Prize" to outstanding biologists as a tribute to Salk.[59]
  • 2006, the United States Postal Service issued a 63-cent Distinguished Americans series stamp stamp in his honor.
  • 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Salk into the California Hall of Fame.[60]
  • 2009, BBYO boys chapter chartered in his honor in Scottsdale, Arizona, Named "Jonas Salk AZA #2357"
  • Schools in Mesa, Arizona; Spokane, Washington; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Bolingbrook, Illinois; Levittown, New York; Old Bridge, New Bailiwick of jersey; Merrillville, Indiana; Sacramento, California ; and Mira Mesa, California ; are named after him.
  • 2012, October 24, in honor of his birthday, has been named "World Polio Twenty-four hour period", and was originated by Rotary International over a decade earlier.[61]
  • 2014, On the 100th anniversary of Salk's birth, a Google Doodle was created to honor the doc and medical researcher. The putter shows happy and healthy children and adults playing and going about their lives with two children hold up a sign saying, "Thank you, Dr. Salk!"[iii] [62]

Documentary films [edit]

  • In early on 2009, the American Public Broadcasting Service aired its new documentary film, American Experience: The Polio Crusade.[22]
  • On Apr 12, 2010, to assist celebrate the 55th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, a new 66-infinitesimal documentary, The Shot Felt 'Circular the Earth, had its world premiere. Directed by Tjardus Greidanus[63] and produced by Laura Davis,[64] the documentary was conceived by Hollywood screenwriter and producer Carl Kurlander to bring "a fresh perspective on the era."[65]
  • In 2014, actor and managing director Robert Redford, who was once struck with a balmy example of polio when he was a kid, directed a documentary nearly the Salk Institute in La Jolla.[66]
  • In Chapter 10 of the 2022 season of Genius Michael McElhatton portrays Salk in a short cameo where he is on a date with Françoise Gilot.[67]

Salk's book publications [edit]

  • Human being Unfolding (1972)
  • Survival of the Wisest (1973)
  • World Population and Man Values: A New Reality (1981)
  • Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983)

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Dr. Jonas Salk, Whose Vaccine Turned Tide on Polio, Dies at 80". The New York Times. June 24, 1995. Retrieved October 23, 2020.
  2. ^ a b "Well-nigh Jonas Salk – Salk Institute for Biological Studies". Salk Establish for Biological Studies . Retrieved February 22, 2016.
  3. ^ a b Hiltzik, Michael (October 28, 2014). "On Jonas Salk'due south 100th altogether, a celebration of his polio vaccine". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 28, 2014.
  4. ^ a b "The Real Reason Why Salk Refused to Patent the Polio Vaccine". Biotech-now.org. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
  5. ^ Tan, Siang Yong; Ponstein, Nate (January 2019). "Jonas Salk (1914–1995): A vaccine against polio". Singapore Medical Periodical. threescore (1): 9–10. doi:x.11622/smedj.2019002. ISSN 0037-5675. PMC6351694. PMID 30840995.
  6. ^ Jacobs, Charlotte DeCroes. "Vaccinations accept always been controversial in America: Column", USA Today, August iv, 2015
  7. ^ "UC San Diego Library Receives Personal Papers of Jonas Salk", Newswise, March twenty, 2014
  8. ^ San Diego Union Tribune, 20 March 2014: "UCSD to house Salk's papers", accessed July 3, 2015.
  9. ^ "Selected Questions from Pupil Interviews: Darrell Salk, Chiliad.D." The Jonas Salk Centre. 2001. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
  10. ^ Charlotte DeCroes Jacobs (April 21, 2015). Jonas Salk: A Life. Oxford University Printing. pp. 45–. ISBN978-0-19-933443-8.
  11. ^ "Jonas Edward Salk facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Jonas Edward Salk". world wide web.encyclopedia.com.
  12. ^ Dr. Lee Salk, Child Psychologist And Pop Author, Dies at 65 – New York Times. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
  13. ^ Roberts, Sam (July 27, 2012). "New York Census Data, Centuries Old, Is Now Online".
  14. ^ City College of New York Microcosm Yearbook, 1934
  15. ^ a b c d eastward f Bookchin, Debbie, and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine, Macmillan (2004) ISBN 0-312-34272-ane
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Oshinsky, David Yard. (2005). Polio: An American Story. Oxford: Oxford University Printing. ISBN978-0-19-515294-4. OCLC 1031748949.
  17. ^ a b Sherrow, Victoria: Jonas Salk, Revised Edition (2009), p. 12
  18. ^ "Jonas Salk Biography and Interview". www.accomplishment.org. American Academy of Achievement.
  19. ^ "Jonas Salk Biography and Interview". www.achievement.org. American University of Achievement.
  20. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2015. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy equally championship (link)
  21. ^ Bankston, John (2002). Jonas Salk and the Polio Vaccine. Carry, Delaware: Mitchell Lane Publishers. pp. 30–32.
  22. ^ a b "American Experience: The Polio Cause" Los Angeles Times, Boob tube Review, February ii, 2009
  23. ^ McPherson, Stephanie (2002). Jonas Salk: Acquisition Polio . Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lerner Publications Company. pp. 33–37. ISBN9780822549642.
  24. ^ a b Wisdom mag, Baronial 1956 pp. 6–15
  25. ^ a b c d due east O'Neill, William L. (1989). American Loftier: The Years of Confidence, 1945–1960. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN0-02-923679-7.
  26. ^ "Jonas Salk and Albert Bruce Sabin". Science History Institute. January eight, 2017. Retrieved June 15, 2020.
  27. ^ "The Watson Plant special instruction history". The Watson Establish. Retrieved November xi, 2021.
  28. ^ a b "Among The 1st To Get A Polio Vaccine, Peter Salk Says Don't Rush A COVID-19 Shot". NPR. May thirty, 2020. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
  29. ^ a b "From Polio To The COVID Vaccine, Dr. Peter Salk Sees Great Progress". NPR. December 26, 2020. Retrieved Dec 26, 2020.
  30. ^ "Complete Program Transcript. The Polio Crusade. WGBH American Experience". PBS. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
  31. ^ "Anti-polio Vaccine Guaranteed past Salk," The New York Times, November 13, 1953
  32. ^ a b c d "What Toll Fame—to Dr. Salk". The New York Times. July 17, 1955.
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Further reading [edit]

  • Jacobs, Charlotte DeCroes. Jonas Salk: A Life, Oxford Univ. Printing (2015), scholarly biography
  • Kluger, Jeffrey. Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio, Berkley Books (2006), history of the polio vaccine
  • Weintraub, B. "Jonas Salk (1914-1995) and the first vacccine confronting polio." Israel Chemist and Engineer. July 2020, iss. half-dozen. p31-34 [1]

External links [edit]

  • The American Feel: The Polio Crusade video, 1 60 minutes. past PBS
  • "Legacy of Salk Plant", video, 30 minutes, history of Salk vaccine
  • "Polio Vaccine" intro., Britannica, video, 1 minute
  • Jonas Salk Legacy Foundation
  • Jonas Salk Trust
  • Salk Institute for Biological Studies
  • Documents regarding Jonas Salk and the Salk Polio Vaccine, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
  • 1985 Open Mind interview with Richard D. Heffner: Human being Evolving...
  • Pittsburgh Mail service-Gazette feature on Jonas Salk and the Polio cure 50 years later
  • The Salk School of Science (New York, New York)
  • Patent US Patent 5,256,767 : Vaccine against HIV
  • The brusque film Man Evolving (1985) is available for gratuitous download at the Internet Archive.
  • Annals of Jonas Salk Papers, 1926–1991 – MSS one, held in the UC San Diego Library'south Special Collections & Archives

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Salk

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